Sepsis treatment and related compositions methods and systems

ABSTRACT

Provided herein are methods and systems and related compositions comprising an effective amount of one or more zwitterionic polysaccharide possibly in combination with one or more antibiotics, for treatment and/or prevention of sepsis or a condition associated thereto in an individual.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application entitled “A Microbiome based Therapy for Sepsis through Induction of Marginal Zone B Cell Activity” Ser. No. 62/173,497 filed on Jun. 10, 2015 Docket No. CIT 7209-P, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

FIELD

The present disclosure relates to the immune system, and, in particular, to sepsis treatment in an individual and related compositions methods and systems.

BACKGROUND

Sepsis is a life-threatening condition that arises when the body's response to infection injures its own tissues and organs.

Despite development of various approaches to treat sepsis, effective treatment of sepsis in individuals remains challenging with the risk of death from sepsis being as high as 30%, severe sepsis as high as 50%, and septic shock as high as 80% of the individuals affected.

SUMMARY

Provided herein, are compositions and related methods and systems that are suitable to treat or prevent sepsis or a condition associated to sepsis, in an individual.

According to a first aspect, a method to treat an individual with sepsis or a condition associated thereto is described. The method comprises systemically administering to the individual an amount of a zwitterionic polysaccharide effective to treat sepsis or the condition associated thereto in the individual.

According to a second aspect, a method to prevent sepsis or a condition associated thereto in an individual at risk of sepsis is described. The method comprises systemically administering to the individual at risk of sepsis or the condition associated thereto, an effective amount of a zwitterionic polysaccharide effective to prevent sepsis or the condition associated thereto in the individual.

According to a third aspect, a pharmaceutical composition for sepsis treatment and/or prevention is described. The composition comprises one or more zwitterionic polysaccharides in an amount effective to treat and/or prevent sepsis or a condition associated theretof and a pharmaceutically acceptable vehicle. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition further comprises one or more antibiotics and/or one or more antiviral agent.

According to a fourth aspect, a system to treat and/or prevent sepsis or a condition associated thereto is described. The system comprises at least two of: one or more zwitterionic polysaccharides and with one or more antibiotics and/or antiviral agents for simultaneous combined or sequential administration according to methods to treat or prevent sepsis or a condition associated thereto herein described.

The compositions and methods herein disclosed can be used in several embodiments to suppress disseminated inflammation and treat sepsis or an associated condition in affected individuals.

The compositions and methods herein disclosed can be used in several embodiments to prevent sepsis or a condition associated thereto in individuals at risk of blood infection and in particular at risk of blood infection by bacteria.

The compositions and methods herein described can be used in connection with medical, pharmaceutical, veterinary applications as well as fundamental biological studies and various applications, identifiable by a skilled person upon reading of the present disclosure, wherein treating, preventing and/or investigating sepsis is desirable

The details of one or more embodiments of the disclosure are set forth in the accompanying drawings and the description below. Other features, objects, and advantages will be apparent from the description and drawings, and from the claims.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated into and constitute a part of this specification, illustrate one or more embodiments of the present disclosure and, together with the detailed description, serve to explain the principles and implementations of the disclosure.

FIG. 1 illustrates data showing that PSA has anti-inflammatory effects outside of the intestine of an individual. In particular, FIG. 1 Panel (A) and Panel (B) are diagrams showing IL-6 (Panel A) and TNF-a (Panel B) detection by q-RT-PCR performed in CD4+ Tcells isolated from spleen of Balb/c animals following oral or systemic (intravenous) treatment with PSA or PBS control, and subsequent colitis induction using TNBS. FIG. 1, Panel (C) is a diagram reporting percent survival of animals treated with PSA and PBS as reported in FIG. 1 Panels A and B. FIG. 1, Panel (D) shows a survival curve in a cecal-ligation puncture (CLP) model following treatment with PSA, PBS and surgery to repair the cecal-ligation puncture in the animal (sham) All experiments contained an n of at least four in each group and were repeated at least twice.

FIG. 2 illustrates data showing that PSA can treat endotoxin induced sepsis. FIG. 2 Panels (A) and (B) show detection of TNF-α (Panel A) and IL-6 (Panel B) by ELISA in serum of Balb/c animals treated intraperitoneally with high doses of LPS (500 ug) and subsequently treated intravenously with PBS, PSA (PSA same) or PSA administered 30 minutes post-LPS (PSA post). Each experiment consists of at least 4 animals in each group and was repeated twice. * p<0.05 **p<0.005 as measured by a student's t-test. FIG. 2 Panel (C) show the percent survival of animals treated as in the experiments leading to the results of FIG. 2 Panels A and B. *p<0.05 **p<0.005 using a logrank and Gehan-Wilcoxon test.

FIG. 3 illustrates data showing that a commensal molecule protects from sepsis through B cells. FIG. 3 Panel (A) shows TNF-α detection by ELISA in serum of RAG^(−/−) animals treated intravenously with either PBS or PSA 24 hours prior to receiving high dose LPS intraperitoneally. FIG. 3 Panel (B) shows the percent survival of the animals treated as the percent survival of animals treated as in the experiments leading to the results of FIG. 3 Panel A. Two experiments were combined. *p<0.05 **p<0.005 using a logrank and Gehan-Wilcoxon test. FIG. 3 Panels (C) show TNF-a detected in serum of RAG^(−/−) recipients of either CD4+CD3+ or total T cells (CD3+) or CD4 depleted splenocytes (includes CD8+ T cells and CD19+ B cells) after LPS administration. FIG. 3 Panel (D) show the percent survival of animals treated as in the experiments leading to the results of FIG. 3 Panel (C) (CD4 depleted, CD3+transfer CD4+transfer). FIG. 3 Panel (E) shows TNF-A detected in RAG^(−/−) recipients of sort purified CD19+ total B cells purified from the spleen of donor animals FIG. 3 Panel (F) show the percent survival of animals treated as in the experiments leading to the results of FIG. 3 Panel (E)* p<0.05 **p<0.005 by a student's t-test for all ELISA data and *p<0.05 **p<0.005 using a logrank and Gehan-Wilcoxon test for survival data. ELISA data is representative from one experiment repeated twice with an n of 4 in each group. Survival data combines multiple experiments.

FIG. 4 illustrates data showing that PSA induces marginal zone B cell activity. FIG. 4 panel A shows TNF-α detected in serum of Marginal zone B cells (CD19+B220+IgM^(hi)CD21^(hi)CD23) were sort purified and transferred into RAG^(−/−) recipients. Twenty-four hours later these animals were given high dose LPS and serum collected at 1 and 4 hours to assay for TNF-α (A) FIG. 4 Panel (B) show the percent survival of animals treated as in the experiments leading to the results of FIG. 4 Panel (A). FIG. 4 Panel (C) shows TNF-α detected in serum of RAG^(−/−) recipients of 8×10⁵ MZ B cells from WT C57Bl/6 animals were treated i.v. with either PBS or PSA (100 ug), the 10⁵ MZ B cells sort purified as in the experiments of FIG. 4 panel (A), following administration in the RAG^(−/−) recipients of high dose LPS (500 ug). FIG. 4 Panel (D) show the percent survival of animals treated as in the experiments leading to the results of FIG. 4 Panel (C) * p<0.05 **p<0.005 by a student's t-test for all ELISA data and *p<0.05 **p<0.005 using a logrank and Gehan-Wilcoxon test for survival data. FIG. 4 Panel (E) shows a detected concentration of TNFA-a in animals either treated with PBS or treated with i.v. PSA and subsequently induced for sepsis. FIG. 4 Panel (F) shows a percent survival in animals that did or did not receive MZ B cells from sIgM^(−/−) mice following either PBS treatment or treatment i.v. with PSA and subsequently induced for sepsis

FIG. 5 panel shows that inflammation occurring at the intesting can also impact extra-intestinal sites. In particular, FIG. 5 Panel A shows detection of TNF-a, IL17, IL-6, IL10 expression in CD4+ T cells isolated from spleen of animals following colitis induction subsequent to administration of PSA or vehicle. FIG. 5 Panel B shows the spleen weight removed from animals of FIG. 5 Panel A. FIG. 5 Panel C shows the disease score of the colons of Balb/c animals for crypt loss and inflammation from a blinded pathologist following intravenous treatment with PSA (sys) or PBS, 24 hours prior to induction of TNBS colitis in comparison with a control. FIG. 5 Panel D shows the percent survival of the animals treated as in FIG. 5 Panel C.

FIG. 6 shows PSA activity is independent on signaling through TLR2 and production of IL-10 from T cells. FIG. 6 Panels C and A show detection of TNF-a in TLR2^(−/−) or IL-10^(−/−) mice treated intravenously treated i.v. with PBS or PSA directly following induction of endotoxin shock by intraperitoneal administration of high doses of LPS (500 ug). FIG. 6 Panels D and B shows the percent survival of the mice treated as indicated in FIG. 6 Panels C and A.

FIG. 7 shows that PSA activity is dependent on Marginal zone B cells.

FIG. 7 Panel A shows percent survival of mice that received MZ B transplant from PSA treated mice or MZB transplant from mock treated mice following induction of endotoxin shock by intraperitoneal administration of high doses of LPS (500 ug). FIG. 7 Panel B shows the IL-6 detected ELISA in serum of the⁻ mice treated as indicated in FIG. 7 Panel A at 30 minutes, 1 hr and 4 hrs following induction of endotoxin shock (PBS treated donor, PSA treated donor).

FIG. 8 shows that PSA activity is dependent on IgM production from Marginal zone B cells. In particular, FIG. 8 shows IgM production in mice treated as indicated in FIG. 7 Panel A at 1 hr and 4 hrs following induction of endotoxin shock.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Methods and compositions and related system are herein described to treat and/or prevent sepsis in an individual.

The wording “sepsis” as used herein indicates an acute overwhelming inflammatory response to an infection in an individual.

The term “inflammatory response “and “inflammation” as used herein indicate the complex biological response of vascular tissues of an individual to harmful stimuli, such as pathogens, damaged cells, or irritants, and includes secretion of cytokines and more particularly of pro-inflammatory cytokine, i.e. cytokines which are produced predominantly by activated immune cells such as microglia and are involved in the amplification of inflammatory reactions. Exemplary pro-inflammatory cytokines include but are not limited to IL-1, IL-6, TNF-a, IL-17, IL21, IL23, and TGF-β. Exemplary inflammations include acute inflammation and chronic inflammation. The wording “acute inflammation” as used herein indicates a short-term process characterized by the classic signs of inflammation (swelling, redness, pain, heat, and loss of function) due to the infiltration of the tissues by plasma and leukocytes. An acute inflammation typically occurs as long as the injurious stimulus is present and ceases once the stimulus has been removed, broken down, or walled off by scarring (fibrosis). The wording “chronic inflammation” as used herein indicates a condition characterized by concurrent active inflammation, tissue destruction, and attempts at repair. Chronic inflammation is not characterized by the classic signs of acute inflammation listed above. Instead, chronically inflamed tissue is characterized by the infiltration of mononuclear immune cells (monocytes, macrophages, lymphocytes, and plasma cells), tissue destruction, and attempts at healing, which include angiogenesis and fibrosis.

Sepsis is caused by an infection triggering an acute and uncontrolled systemic inflammation, which often leads to multiple organ failure and death. The infection is most commonly bacterial, but it can also be from fungi, viruses, or parasites. Common locations for the primary infection include: lungs, brain, urinary tract, skin, and abdominal organs. Systemic inflammations include but are not limited to an inflammatory response in the circulatory system, an inflammatory response which is not confined in a specific organ, and an inflammatory response that extends to a plurality (up to all) tissues and organs in an individual. In particular, sepsis inflammatory response involves a rigorous cytokine response to infection with a surge of inflammatory cytokines, in an effort to promote clearance of infection, that causes host damage including widespread vascular coagulation and ‘immune paralysis’ due to apoptosis of immune cells and leads to hypotension, multiple organ failure and systemic coagulation. Sepsis results from systemic hyper-immune activation,

In methods here described sepsis or a condition associated thereot can be treated or prevented by parenteral administration of PSA or another zwitterionic polysaccharide to an individual.

The term “zwitterionic polysaccharide” as used herein indicates synthetic or natural polymers comprising one or more monosaccharides joined together by glicosidic bonds, and including at least one positively charged moiety and at least one negatively charged moiety. Zwitterionic polysaccharides (“ZPs”) include but are not limited to polymers of any length, from a mono- or di-saccharide polymer to polymers including hundreds or thousands of monosaccharides. In some embodiments, a zwitterionic polysaccharide can include repeating units wherein each repeating unit includes from two to ten monosaccharides, a positively charged moiety (e.g. an free positively charged amino moiety) and a negatively charged moiety (such as sulfonate, sulfate, phosphate and phosphonate). In some embodiments, the zwitterionic polysaccharide includes one positive charge and one negative charge on each repeating unit. In some embodiments, a ZP can include 7-12, 12-17, or 15-22 repeating units. In some embodiment ZPs can have a molecular weight comprised between 500 Da and 2,000,000 Da. In some embodiments, the ZPs can have a molecular weight comprised between 200 and 2500. Exemplary ZPS include but are not limited to Polysaccharide A or PSA and Polysaccharide B or PSB from Bacteroides Fragilis, CP5/CD8 from Staphylococcus aureus, and Sp1/CP1 from Streptococcus pneumonia. Zwitterionic polysaccharides can be isolated from natural sources, and in particular from bacterial sources, e.g. by purification. Zwitterionic polysaccharides can also be produced by chemical or biochemical methods, as well as by recombinant microorganism technologies all identifiable by a skilled person. Thus, those methods and technologies will not be further described herein in detail.

The wording “polysaccharide A” as used herein indicates a molecule produced by the PSA locus of Bacteroides Fragilis and derivatives thereof which include but are not limited to a polysaccharide of the repeating unit {→3) α-d-AAT Galp(1→4)-[β-d-Galf(1→3)] α-d-GalpNAc(1→3)-[4,6-pyruvate]-β-d-Galp(1→}, where AATGal is acetamido-amino-2,4,6-trideoxygalactose, and the galactopyranosyl residue is modified by a pyruvate substituent spanning 0-4 and 0-6. PSA comprises PSA1 and PSA 2 produced by B. fragilis [1, 2]. In particular, PSA naturally produced by B. Fragilis comprise a tetrasaccharide repeating unit repeated hundreds of times (U.S. Pat. No. 5,679,654). PSA2 is a polysaccharide having a pentasaccharide repeating unit containing manoheptose, N-acetylmannosamine, 3-acetoamido-3,6-dideoxyglucose, 2-amino-4-acetomido-2,4,6-trideoxygalactose, fucose, and 3-hydroxybutanoic acid, with a free amine (positively charged moiety) and anionic carboxylate (negatively charged moiety) in each repeating unit. The wording “polysaccharide B” as used herein indicates a molecule produced by the PSA locus of Bacteroides Fragilis and derivatives thereof which include but are not limited to polymers of the repeating unit->3-beta-D-QulpNAc-{(1->4)-alpha-D-Galp-[(alpha-L-Fucp-(1->2)-beta-D-GalA-(1->3)-(4-(2-AEP))-beta-D-GlcNac-(1->3)]}-(1->4)-alpha-L-QulpNAc-1->.

The term “derivative” as used herein with reference to a first polysaccharide (e.g., PSA), indicates a second polysaccharide that is structurally related to the first polysaccharide and is derivable from the first polysaccharide by a modification that introduces a feature that is not present in the first polysaccharide while retaining functional properties of the first polysaccharide. Accordingly, a derivative polysaccharide of PSA usually differs from the original polysaccharide by modification of the repeating units or of the saccharidic component of one or more of the repeating units that might or might not be associated with an additional function not present in the original polysaccharide. A derivative polysaccharide of PSA retains however one or more functional activities that are herein described in connection with PSA in association with the antiseptic activity of PSA. Derivatives of a PSA or another ZPs in the sense of the disclosure can be a fragment of PSA or any other structurally related polysaccharide that comprise the requisite charged groups, and sufficient numbers of repeating units to provide the effects recited in the present disclosure.

Zwitterionic polysaccharide, and in particular PSA and PSB or derivatives thereof that can be used in the methods and systems of the disclosure and related compositions can be naturally occurring or synthetically produced polysaccharides. In some embodiments, the zwitterionic polysaccharide can be PSA1, PSA2 and/or PSB.

In embodiments herein described, one or more ZPs and in particular PSA systemically administered to the individual protects an individual from sepsis and conditions associated thereto, as shown for example by the data in the examples showing PSA ability to protect an individual from inflammation and death in two independent models of sepsis.

The wording “systemic administration” as used herein indicates a route of administration by which an active agent is brought in contact with the body of the individual, so that the desired effect is systemic (i.e. non limited to the specific tissue where the infection and/or inflammation occurs). In particular, in embodiments herein described the administration of PSA or other ZPS can be performed by parenteral administration, a systemic route of administration where a substance is given by a route other than the digestive tract and includes but is not limited to intravenous administration, intra-arterial administration, intramuscular administration, subcutaneous administration, intradermal, administration, intraperitoneal administration, and intravesical infusion.

In some embodiments, administration is performed intravenously by introducing a liquid formulation including one or more ZPs in a vein of an individual using intravenous access methods identifiable by a skilled person, including access through the skin into a peripheral vein. In some embodiments, administration of a ZP is performed intraperitoneally, by injecting a ZP in the peritoneum of an individual, and in particular of animals or humans. Intraperitoneal administration is generally preferred when large amounts of blood replacement fluids are needed, or when low blood pressure or other problems prevent the use of a suitable blood vessel for intravenous injection.

The term “individual” as used herein includes a single biological organism wherein inflammation and in particular sepsis can occur including but not limited to animals and in particular higher animals more particularly vertebrates such as mammals and in particular human beings.

The term “condition” as used herein indicates a usually the physical status of the body of an individual, as a whole or of one or more of its parts, that does not conform to a physical status of the individual, as a whole or of one or more of its parts, that is associated with a state of complete physical, mental and possibly social well-being. Conditions herein described include but are not limited disorders and diseases wherein the term “disorder” indicates a condition of the living individual that is associated to a functional abnormality of the body or of any of its parts, and the term “disease” indicates a condition of the living individual that impairs normal functioning of the body or of any of its parts and is typically manifested by distinguishing signs and symptoms. Exemplary conditions include but are not limited to injuries, disabilities, disorders (including mental and physical disorders), syndromes, infections, deviant behaviors of the individual and atypical variations of structure and functions of the body of an individual or parts thereof.

The wording “associated to” as used herein with reference to two items indicates a relation between the two items such that the occurrence of a first item is accompanied by the occurrence of the second item, which includes but is not limited to a cause-effect relation and sign/symptoms-disease relation.

Conditions associated with sepsis are severe sepsis, septic shock, multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS) and systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) when caused by infection. In particular, severe sepsis septic shock MODS and SIRS are typically associated to sepsis in process that usually begins with infection, and sepsis and results in organ dysfunction. A distinction between those conditions can be made by treating physicians based on different signs and symptoms.

In particular, with reference to sepsis, in addition to symptoms related to the provoking infection, sepsis is frequently associated with fever and/or low body temperature, rapid breathing, elevated heart rate, confusion, and edema. Early signs of sepsis are a fast heart rate, decreased urination, and high blood sugar as will be understood by a skilled person.

Symptoms of severe sepsis comprise confusion, metabolic acidosis (which may be accompanied by faster breathing leading to a respiratory alkalosis), low blood pressure due to decreased systemic vascular resistance, higher cardiac output, and dysfunctions of blood coagulation (where clotting can lead to organ failure).

Septic shock indicates a subclass of distributive shock, a condition in which abnormal distribution of blood flow in the smallest blood vessels results in inadequate blood supply to the body's tissues, resulting in ischemia and organ dysfunction. Septic shock can be defined as sepsis-induced hypotension that persists despite treatment with intravenous fluids Low blood pressure reduces tissue perfusion pressure, causing the tissue hypoxia that is characteristic of shock. Cytokines released in a large scale inflammatory response result in massive vasodilation, increased capillary permeability, decreased systemic vascular resistance, and hypotension and in an attempt to offset decreased blood pressure, ventricular dilatation and myocardial dysfunction occur. The drop in blood pressure seen in sepsis can lead to shock. This may result in light-headedness. Bruising or intense bleeding may also occur.

Multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS) indicates a condition in which the presence of altered organ function in acutely ill patients such that homeostasis cannot be maintained without intervention. MODS usually involves two or more organ systems and is a continuum, with incremental degrees of physiologic derangements in individual organs, in particular is typically in a continuum of severity from sepsis to septic shock to MODS. Accordingly MODS is a process rather than a single event. Alteration in organ function can vary widely from a mild degree of organ dysfunction to completely irreversible organ failure. The degree of organ dysfunction has a major clinical impact as will be understood by a skilled person.

SIRS indicates a serious condition related to systemic inflammation, organ dysfunction, and organ failure. It is a subset of cytokine storm, in which there is abnormal regulation of various cytokines SIRS caused by infection also closely related to sepsis, in which patients satisfy criteria for SIRS and have a suspected or proven infection. Symptoms of SIRS in adults and pediatric identifiable by a skilled person.

One or more of the above conditions can be treated or prevented by administering to an individual with the conditions or at risk of the conditions PSA or another ZPS in an effective amount. The term “treatment” as used herein indicates any activity that is part of a medical care for or deals with a condition medically or surgically.

The term “prevention” as used herein indicates any activity, which reduces the burden of mortality or morbidity from a condition in an individual. This takes place at primary, secondary and tertiary prevention levels, wherein: a) primary prevention reduces the development of a disease; b) secondary prevention activities are aimed at early disease treatment, thereby increasing opportunities for interventions to prevent progression of the disease and emergence of symptoms; and c) tertiary prevention reduces the negative impact of an already established disease by restoring function and reducing disease-related complications.

Treatment or prevention of sepsis or condition associated thereto encompasses activities directed to achieve in an individual stabilization or improvement of the symptoms, reduction of the extent of the condition, delay or slowing of the progression of the condition, recovery (from the condition, and prolonging survival compared to expected survival in absence of the activities.

In embodiments herein described PSA is provided in effective amount to activate marginal zone (MZ) B cell activity, through a series of events resulting in PSA mediated protection from sepsis independent of T cell response, through IgM production from MZ B cells. The wording “effective amount” indicate an amount sufficient to obtain a desired biological effect such as activation of (MZ) B cell and/or IgM production from (MZ) B cells.

The term “activate” as used herein with reference to a cell indicates a chemical or biological reaction resulting in a modification of the status of the cell that renders the cell active in one or more biological process. Accordingly, activation of cells of the immunitary system results in a modification of the cell status rendering the cell active in immunitary reactions. Activation of a cell of the immunitary system typically but not necessarily involves a capacity to produce antibody and/or the capacity to participate in cell-mediated immunity.

The wording “marginal zone B cells” or “MZ B cells” indicates noncirculating mature B cells that segregate anatomically into the marginal zone (MZ) of the spleen. The marginal zone of the spleen contains multiple subtypes of macrophages, dendritic cells, and B cells. MZ B cells are positioned between the lymphoid tissue of the white pulp and the circulation within the spleen, thereby readily interacting with circulating antigens. Similar to B1 B cells, MZ B cells can be rapidly recruited into the early adaptive immune responses in a T cell independent manner The MZ B cells are especially well positioned as a first line of defense against systemic blood-borne antigens that enter the circulation and become trapped in the spleen. The marginal zone (MZ) B cells are considered to possess “innate like” qualities as they express semi-variant or low diversity B cell receptors (BCRs) that recognize multiple conserved microbial factors. It is believed MZ B cells are especially reactive to bacterial cell wall components and self-antigens which are the products of aging. MZ B cells also display a lower activation threshold than their FO B cell counterparts with heightened propensity for plasma cell differentiation that contributes further to the accelerated primary antibody response. In particular, MZ B cells are involved in the clearance of encapsulated bacteria as upon their activation MZ B cells produce copious amounts of IgM against bacterial polysaccharides. IgM secretion has been implicated in protection from preclinical sepsis. In particular, this rapid antibody response can either neutralize LPS or promote bacterial killing [3]. In rodents, the MZ B-cells and B1 B-cells exhibit an activated phenotype that allows their rapid proliferation and differentiation into Ab-secreting cells upon stimulation with thymus independent (TI) antigens (Ags). MZ B-cells seem to preferentially secrete antibodies of the IgM and IgG3 isotypes. Activated MZ B-cells are potent protein Ag presenters to CD4+ T-cells, and have the ability to induce Ag-specific T-cell clonal expansion both in vitro and in vivo [4].

Accordingly, in some embodiments herein described, PSA and/or other ZPs administration is performed in effective amounts to induce IgM production from MZ-B cells to inhibit inflammation and promote bacterial killing.

The terms “inhibiting” and “inhibit”, as used herein indicate the activity of decreasing the biological reaction or process. Accordingly, a substance “inhibits” a certain biological reaction or process if it is capable of decreasing that biological reaction or process by interfering with said reaction or process. For example, a substance can inhibit a certain biological reaction or process by reducing or suppressing the activity of another substance (e.g. an enzyme) associated to the biological reaction or process, e.g. by binding, (in some cases specifically), said other substance. Inhibition of the biological reaction or process can be detected by detection of an analyte associated with the biological reaction or process. The term “detect” or “detection” as used herein indicates the determination of the existence, presence or fact of an analyte or related signal in a limited portion of space, including but not limited to a sample, a reaction mixture, a molecular complex and a substrate. A detection is “quantitative” when it refers, relates to, or involves the measurement of quantity or amount of the analyte or related signal (also referred as quantitation), which includes but is not limited to any analysis designed to determine the amounts or proportions of the analyte or related signal. A detection is “qualitative” when it refers, relates to, or involves identification of a quality or kind of the analyte or related signal in terms of relative abundance to another analyte or related signal, which is not quantified. Inhibition of inflammation can be detected by cytokine detection as it will be understood by a skilled person.

The term “cytokine” as used herein indicates a category of signaling proteins and glycoproteins extensively used in cellular communication that are produced by a wide variety of hematopoietic and non-hematopoietic cell types and can have autocrine, paracrine and endocrine effects, sometimes strongly dependent on the presence of other chemicals. The cytokine family consists mainly of smaller, water-soluble proteins and glycoproteins with a mass between 8 and 30 kDa. Cytokines are critical to the development and functioning of both the innate and adaptive immune response. They are often secreted by immune cells that have encountered a pathogen, thereby activating and recruiting further immune cells to increase the system's response to the pathogen.

Detection of inhibition of cytokine production can be performed by methods known to a skilled person including but not limited to ELISA, Q-PCR and intracellular cytokine staining detected by FACs and any other methods identifiable by a skilled person upon reading of the present disclosure.

As with other pharmaceuticals, it will be understood that the total daily usage of one or more pharmaceutical compositions of the present disclosure will be decided by a patient's attending physician within the scope of sound medical judgment. The specific therapeutically effective or prophylactically effective dose level for any particular patient will depend upon a variety of factors including the disorder being treated and the severity of the disorder; activity of the specific compound employed; the specific composition employed; the age, body weight, general health, sex and diet of the patient; the time administration, route of administration, and rate of excretion of the specific compound employed; the duration of the treatment; drugs used in combination or coincidental with the specific compound employed; and other factors known to those of ordinary skill in the medical arts.

For example, the amount of ZPs can be titrated to determine the effective amount for administering to an individual in need of treatment. A skilled person will appreciate that the attending physician would know how to and when to terminate, interrupt or adjust administration of ZPs in view of the clinical response

In some embodiments, the effective amount of ZP and in particular PSA and/or PSB can be from about 1-100 micrograms to about 25 grams of body weight.

An effective amount and in particular a therapeutically effective amount of PSA can be for example in the range of between about 1 μg to about 100 μg of PSA per 0.025 kilograms of body weight. In some embodiments, the effective amount is in a range from about 10 μg to 100 μg per 25 grams of body weight. In some embodiments, the effective amount is in a range from about 25 μg to about 100 μg. In some embodiments, the effective amount is in a range from about 0.001 to about 1,000 μg per 25 grams of body weight. In some embodiments, the effective amount is in a range from about 0.1 to about 1,000 μg per 25 grams of body weight.

The term “about” as used herein indicates a variation that does not impact effects and functionality of a referenced item. In particular when referred to a concentration of an active agent the term “about” indicate a modification that maintains effectiveness of the concentration in the sense of the disclosure.

In some embodiments, one or more ZPs is comprised in a composition together with a suitable vehicle. The term “vehicle” as used herein indicates any of various media acting usually as solvents, carriers, binders or diluents for PSA and/or another ZPS comprised in the composition as an active ingredient.

In some embodiments, where the composition is to be administered to an individual the composition can be a pharmaceutical antiseptic composition, and comprises PSA and a pharmaceutically acceptable vehicle. In particular, the pharmaceutical compositions of the present disclosure are formulated for systemic administration and in particular for parenteral administration.

In some embodiments, pharmaceutical composition herein described can comprise a zwitterionic polysaccharide in an amount of from about 0.01 μg to about 1,000 μg. In some embodiments, pharmaceutical composition herein described can comprise a zwitterionic polysaccharide in an amount of from about 0.01 μg to about 1,000 μg.

In some embodiments, PSA can be included in pharmaceutical compositions together with an excipient or diluent. In particular, in some embodiments, pharmaceutical compositions are disclosed which contain PSA, in combination with one or more compatible and pharmaceutically acceptable vehicle, and in particular with pharmaceutically acceptable diluents or excipients.

The term “excipient” as used herein indicates an inactive substance used as a carrier for the active ingredients of a medication. Suitable excipients for the pharmaceutical compositions herein disclosed include any substance that enhances the ability of the body of an individual to absorb a ZP and in particular PSA. Suitable excipients also include any substance that can be used to bulk up formulations with a ZP and in particular PSA to allow for convenient and accurate dosage. In addition to their use in the single-dosage quantity, excipients can be used in the manufacturing process to aid in the handling of PSA. Depending on the route of administration, and form of medication, different excipients may be used. Exemplary excipients include but are not limited to antiadherents, binders, coatings disintegrants, fillers, flavors (such as sweeteners) and colors, glidants, lubricants, preservatives, sorbents.

The term “diluent” as used herein indicates a diluting agent which is issued to dilute or carry an active ingredient of a composition. Suitable diluent include any substance that can decrease the viscosity of a medicinal preparation.

In embodiments herein described, compositions and, in particular, pharmaceutical compositions can be formulated for systemic administration, which includes enteral and parenteral administration.

Exemplary compositions for parenteral administration include but are not limited to sterile aqueous solutions, injectable solutions or suspensions including PSA and/or another ZP. In some embodiments, a composition for parenteral administration can be prepared at the time of use by dissolving a powdered composition, previously prepared in lyophilized form, in a biologically compatible aqueous liquid (distilled water, physiological solution or other aqueous solution).

In some embodiments, methods systems and compositions to treat sepsis or a condition associated thereto comprise administering PSA or a ZPS in combination with one or more antibiotics.

The term “antibiotic” or “antibacterials” indicates a type of antimicrobial compounds used as drug used in the treatment and prevention of bacterial infection Antibiotics can either kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria. A limited number of antibiotics also possess antiprotozoal activity.

In some embodiments herein described, one or more antibiotics, typically combinations of two or three antibiotics, can be administered together with PSA and/or other ZPS. In some embodiments the one or more antibiotics can be administered simultaneously, or sequentially, one with respect to the other and with respect to the ZPS. In some embodiments, antibiotics combinations usually comprise vancomycin to treat many MRSA infections. Some of the commonly used antibiotics used are ceftriaxone (Rocephin™), ceftazidime (Fortaz™), cefepime (Maxipime™), cefotaxime (Claforan™), clindamycin (Cleocin™), imipenem/cilastatin (Primaxin™), levofloxacin (Levaquin™), meropenem (Merrem™), ampicillin and sulbactam (Unasyn), piperacillin and tazobactam (Zosyn™), and additional antibiotics identifiable by a skilled person.

In some embodiments, once the infecting organism is isolated, the antibiotics can be selected following determination of the antibiotics most effective against the infecting organisms. In some additional or alternative embodiments, administration of PSA and/or other ZPS can be performed in combination with other therapeutic interventions, such as organ-system support and surgery, intubation [mechanical ventilation] to support lung function or dialysis to support kidney function) or a central venous catheter and fluid replacement with intravenous fluids and/or antihypotensive medication to raise blood pressure (e.g. norepinephrine [Levophed] or phenylephrine [Neo-Synephrine] administered by IV).

In some embodiments, methods and compositions to treat sepsis or a condition associated thereto comprise administering PSA or a ZPS in combination with one or more antiviral agent.

The term “antiviral agent” as used herein indicates any compound that can be used to treat a viral infection as will be understood by a skilled person. Antiviral in the sense of the disclosure comprise various antiviral drugs that can be used to treat viral infection such as HIV, herpes viruses, the hepatitis B and C viruses, and influenza A and B viruses and additional viral infection identifiable by a skilled person.

In some embodiments herein described, one or more antiviral agents, typically combinations of two or three, can be administered together with PSA and/or other ZPS. and an effective amount of an anti-viral agent, which may be, without limitation, abacavir, aciclovir, adefovir, amantadine, amprenavir, atazanavir, brincidovir, cidofovir, didanosin, efavirenz, emtricitabin, enfuvirtide, enviroxime, famciclovir, foscarnet, ganciclovir, indinavir, interferon alpha, lamivudin, lamivudine, lopinavir, nelfinavir, nevirapin, oseltamivir, pegylated interferon-alpha, penciclovir, ribavirin, ritonavir, saquinavir, stavudin, tenofovir, valaciclovir, valganciclovir zanamivir, zidovudine.

In embodiments herein described, one or more ZPs and in particular PSA herein described can be provided as a part of systems where they are provided in a combination to treat and/or prevent sepsis or a condition associated thereto as described herein.

In particular, in some embodiments, a system to treat and/or prevent sepsis or a condition associated thereto in an individual, comprises at least two of at least one zwitterionic polysaccharide and at least one antibiotic

In some embodiments, a system to treat and/or prevent sepsis or a condition associated thereto in an individual, comprises at least two of at least one zwitterionic polysaccharide and at least one antiviral agent.

In particular, in some embodiments, a system to treat and/or prevent sepsis or a condition associated thereto in an individual, comprises at least two of at least one zwitterionic polysaccharide, at least one antibiotic and at least one antiviral agent.

In embodiments herein described the ZP, antibiotic and antiviral agents are comprised in formulations for simultaneous combined or sequential systemic and in particular parenteral administration to the individual in an effective amount to treat and/or prevent sepsis or the condition associated thereto in the individual

The systems can be provided in the form of kits of parts. In a kit of parts, one or ore ZPs and in particular PSA, one or more antibiotics and/or other agents for treatment or prevention of sepsis or of a condition associated thereto can be comprised in the kit independently. The one or ore ZPs and in particular PSA, and one or more antibiotics can be included in one or more compositions, and each ZPs and each antibiotics can be in a composition together with a suitable vehicle.

In particular, the components of the kit can be provided, with suitable instructions and other necessary reagents, in order to perform the methods here described. The kit will normally contain the compositions in separate containers. Instructions, for example written or audio instructions, on paper or electronic support such as tapes or CD-ROMs, for carrying out the assay, will usually be included in the kit. The kit can also contain, depending on the particular method used, other packaged reagents and materials (i.e. saline solution and the like).

Further effects and characteristics of the present disclosure will become more apparent hereinafter from the following detailed disclosure in the Examples section illustrating examples of the compositions and methods herein described as well as the experiments showing functional and physical interactions of PSA which are given by way or illustration only.

EXAMPLES

The methods and system herein disclosed are further illustrated in the following examples, which are provided by way of illustration and are not intended to be limiting.

In particular, in the following examples, the following materials and methods were used.

Bacterial Strains and Animals.

B. fragilis NCTC9343 and H. hepaticus ATCC51149 were obtained from the American Type Culture Collection. Conventionally reared SPF mice of strains C57BL/6NTac, C57BL/6NTac IL-10^(−/−), and B6.129S6-Rag2^(tm1Fwa) N12 (Rag2^(−/−)) were purchased from Taconic Farms (Germantown, N.Y.) and screened negative for B. fragilis and H. hepaticus. Swiss-Webster germ-free (SWGF) mice were purchased from Taconic Farms. Upon delivery in sterile shipping containers, the mice were transferred to sterile isolators (Class Biologically Clean, Madison, Wis.) in our animal facility. Animals were screened weekly for bacterial, viral, and fungal contamination as previously described. All animals were cared for under established protocols and the IACUC guidelines of Harvard Medical School and the California Institute of Technology.

Model of Inflammation:

Three models of intestinal inflammation were used: 1) CD4⁺CD45Rb^(high) T cells were purified from the spleens of wild-type or IL-10^(−/−) donor mice by flow cytometry and transferred into Rag (C57Bl/6) recipients as described. 2) TNBS colitis was induced by pre-sensitization of wild-type (C57Bl/6) mice on the skin with a TNBS/acetone mix. Seven days after sensitization, 2.5% TNBS in ethanol was administered rectally; mice were sacrificed 3-6 days later.

Assays and Scoring Systems:

Cytokines from the spleen, colons, or mesenteric lymphonodes (MLNs) were assayed by ELISA, Q-PCR, or flow cytometry. Colitis was assessed with tissue sections (fixed, paraffin embedded, sectioned onto a slide, and stained with hematoxylin and eosin) and was scored by a blinded pathologist (Dr. R. T. Bronson, Harvard Medical School) according to a standard scoring system: 0, no thickening of colonic tissues and no inflammation (infiltration of lymphocytes); 1, mild thickening of tissues but no inflammation; 2, mild thickening of tissues and mild inflammation; 3, severe thickening and severe inflammation. BMDCs were purified from femurs of mice after extraction and washing in PBS. Cells were cultured for 8 days in C-RPMI-10 in the presence of GM-CSF (20 ng/mL; Biosource, Camarillo, Calif.). CD4⁺ T cells were purified by negative selection over a magnetic column (Miltenyi or R& D Systems).

Flow Cytometry, Fluorescence-Activated Cell Sorting (FACS), and Staining.

Lymphocytes were isolated from mouse spleens that were mechanically disrupted into single-cell preparations. Red blood cells were lysed, and splenocytes (1×10⁶) were incubated with various combinations of antibodies (BD Pharmingen, San Diego, Calif.) at 2 mg/mL for 30 min at 4° C. Cells were then washed and either fixed or used directly. For intracellular cytokine flow cytometry, samples were analyzed on a model FC500 cytometer (Beckman Coulter, Fullerton, Calif.) or a FacsCalibur (Becton Dickson), and data were analyzed with RXP Analysis Software (Beckman Coulter) or FlowJO. FACS was performed on a BD FACSAria, and cell purity was always >99%.

In Vitro Cytokine Assays.

For colon organ cultures, procedures were followed as previously reported. For co-culture, CD4⁺ T cells were purified from splenic lymphocytes (prepared as described above) with a CD4⁺ T Cell Subset Kit (R&D Systems, Minneapolis, Minn.) used as instructed by the manufacturer. Cell purity was always >95%. BMDCs were purified from femurs of mice after extraction and washing in PBS. Cells were cultured for 8 days in C-RPMI-10 in the presence of GM-CSF (20 ng/mL; Biosource, Camarillo, Calif.). Medium was replaced after 4 days, and adherent cells were cultured for an additional 4 days, at which point nonadherent cells were recovered, washed, and used directly. Cells were >95% CD11c⁺ at the time of use. Purified CD4⁺ T cells (1×10⁶) were mixed with purified CD11c⁺ BMDCs (1×10⁶) in a 48-well plate and were incubated at 37° C. in an atmosphere containing 5% CO₂. Various stimuli were used, as described in Results. ELISA was performed with pre-coated plate kits (BD Pharmingen) according to the manufacturer's guidelines. In some assays, H. hepaticus, with or without wild-type B. fragilis or B. fragilis ΔPSA, was added at various concentrations.

Induction of experimental colitis. As assessed by PCR, Rag2^(−/−) and control C57Bl/6 mice were negative for H. hepaticus colonization at the time of delivery. Splenic lymphocytes were harvested from wild-type donor mice, and CD4⁺CD45Rb^(high) cells were purified from lymphocyte populations by FACS as described above. Cells were washed with PBS, and 3×10⁵ cells were injected intraperitoneally in a volume of 0.2 mL into recipient H. hepaticus-colonized Rag2^(−/−) animals. For colonization experiments, both H. hepaticus (1×10⁸ organisms) and B. fragilis (1×10⁸ organisms) were introduced at the time of cell transfer. Throughout PSA treatment studies, animals received 50 μg of PSA by gavage 3 times per week. Animals were weighed throughout the experiment until sacrifice at 8 weeks.

Induction of Intestinal Inflammation-TNBS Colitis.

The backs of wild-type (C57BL/6) male mice were shaved, and pre-sensitization solution (150 μL; acetone with olive oil in a 4:1 ratio mixed with 5% TNBS in a 4:1 ratio) was slowly applied. Seven days after sensitization, mice were anesthetized with isofluorene and TNBS solution (100 μL; 1:1 5% TNBS with absolute ethanol) administered rectally through a 3.5 F catheter (Instech Solomon; SIL-C35). Mice were analyzed 4-6 days after TNBS administration.

Histologic Tissue Analysis.

Mouse tissues in Bouin's fixative (VWR, West Chester, Pa.) were embedded in paraffin, sectioned (6-μm slices), mounted onto slides, and stained with hematoxylin and eosin. Sections were evaluated in blinded fashion by a single pathologist (Dr. R. T. Bronson, Harvard Medical School).

Quantitative Real-Time PCR.

RNA was extracted with Trizol per the manufacturer's instructions (Invitrogen). RNA (1 μg) was reverse transcribed into cDNA with an iScript cDNA synthesis kit (Bio-Rad). cDNA was diluted by addition of 60 μL of water, and a 2-4, volume of this solution was used for Q-PCR. Q-PCR was performed using IQ SYBR Green supermix (Bio-Rad) and primers were used at 0.2 μm. Q-PCR was performed on a Bio-Rad iCycler IQ5. Sequences of Q-PCR primers were as follows 5′-3′: IL-23 (p19) F: AGC TAT GAA TCT ACT AAG AGA GGG ACA (SEQ ID NO: 1) R: GTC CTA GTA GGG AGG TGT GAA GTT G (SEQ ID NO: 2). IL-17A F: TTA AGG TTC TCT CCT CTG AA (SEQ ID NO: 3) R: TAG GGA GCT AAA TTA TCC AA. (SEQ ID NO: 4) TNFα F: ACG GCA TGG ATC TCA AAG AC (SEQ ID NO: 5) R: GTG GGT GAG GAG CAC GTA GT (SEQ ID NO: 6). IL-10 F: CTG GAC AAC ATA CTG CTA ACC G (SEQ ID NO: 7) R: GGG CAT CAC TTC TAC CAG GTA A (SEQ ID NO:8) RORyT F: CCG CTG AGA GGG CTT CAC (SEQ ID NO: 9) R: TGC AGG AGT AGG CCA CAT TAC A (SEQ ID NO: 10) IL-21 F: ATC CTG AAC TTC TAT CAG CTC CAC (SEQ ID NO: 11) R: GCA TTT AGC TAT GTG CTT CTG TTT C (SEQ ID NO: 12) IL-27 F: CTG TTG CTG CTA CCC TTG CTT (SEQ ID NO: 13) R: CAC TCC TGG CAA TCG AGA TTC (SEQ ID NO: 14).

PSA dosages: The results illustrated in the Examples section refer to a dosage of 5 μg/25 gram mouse. Ranges from 25 μg to 100 μg for a 25 gram mouse and lower than 10 μg/mouse to above 200 μg for a 25 gr/mouse are also expected to provide protection from sepsis.

Example 1 Oral Administration of PSA Suppresses Systemic Inflammation Associated with Intestinal Disease

Experiments were performed to show that inflammation that occurs at mucosal sites, such as the intestine, can also impact extra-intestinal sites such as the spleen.

Animals were orally gavaged with vehicle or PSA twenty-four hours prior to being induced with colitis. Five days post-induction CD4+ T cells were isolated from the spleens of indicated animals and analyzed for the inflammatory cytokines TNF-α, IL-17a and IL-6 to determine how systemic inflammation is influenced during intestinal disease.

The results of these experiments did show that animals suffering from intestinal disease have elevated levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines within cells of the spleen and splenomegaly (FIG. 5, panels A and B).

However, it was also found that while colitogenic animals had significant increases in inflammatory T cells responses within the spleen, PSA treated animals had reduced cytokine expression at this systemic site (FIG. 5, panel A).

Additionally, the results show that splenomegaly occurs in colitic animals that orally gavaged PSA is also able to prevent (FIG. 5, panel C). Based on these findings, it was investigated also if PSA could also influence inflammation within the systemic compartment. Data obtained in animals following intravenous administration of PSA supported this conclusion (FIG. 5, panels C and D).

Example 2 Intravenous Administration of PSA Suppresses Colitis and Extra Intestinal Inflammation in a Model of Endotoxic Shock

In order to verify whether PSA has anti-inflammatory effects outside of the intestine, experiments were performed in a model of endotoxic shock.

In this model, animals are treated intravenously with high doses of endotoxin (lipopolysaccharide; LPS). Administration of LPS leads to the production of massive amounts of inflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) and IL-6 and animals rapidly succumb to death. This model closely resembles the cytokine storm seen in patients suffering from septic shock.

In particular, Balb/c animals were orally gavaged with PSA or PBS control and subsequently induced for colitis using TNBS. Five days post-induction CD4+ T cells were isolated from the spleens of the indicated animals. Equal amounts of RNA were used to perform q-RT-PCR on IL6 or TNFa cytokines at 1 and 4 hours post-LPS. (FIG. 1 panel A diagram on the left, and FIG. 1 panel B diagram on the left)

In another set of experiments, Balb/c animals were treated intravenously with PSA 24 hours prior to be induced with TNBS colitis. Five days post-induction CD4+ T cells were isolated from the spleens of the indicated animals. Equal amounts of RNA were used to perform q-RT-PCR on IL6 or TNFa cytokines at 1 and 4 hours post-LPS. (FIG. 1 panel A diagram on the right, and FIG. 1 panel B diagram on the right)

The above two sets of experiments tested whether the mode of delivery of PSA influenced the outcome of disease. Consistent with this model, mock treated animals had significantly more serum TNF-α and IL6 (FIG. 1 panels A and B). Interestingly, PSA significantly blocked induction of serum inflammatory cytokines, but only when provided to the animal directly within the blood (FIG. 1 panels A and B).

Animals fed PSA had similar levels of both IL-6 and even slightly elevated TNF-α in the serum, indicating that PSA present in the gut cannot protect from this systemic acute inflammatory response (FIG. 1 panels A and B).

Example 3 Intravenous PSA Administration Protects Animals from Death in Two Distinct Models of Sepsis

Detection of percent survival of in animals treated intravenously with high doses of endotoxin (lipopolysaccharide; LPS) was performed. Accordingly, Balb/C animals were orally or intravenously treated with PSA or PBS as described in Example 2 and the number of surviving mice counted. As a result of these experiments it was found that, intravenous administration of PSA potently protected animals from death associated with this model of endotoxin induced sepsis (FIG. 1 panel C).

To validate a role for PSA during protection from sepsis, a second, well-established mouse model of sepsis called the cecal-ligation puncture (CLP) model was used. CLP induces colonic spillage of bacteria into the peritoneal cavity, which then enter the bloodstream. Although there are limitations, this model is thought to best mimic a primary cause of human sepsis (polymicrobial infection from the gut). While about fifty percent of the animals that were mock treated with PBS succumbed to death by CLP, animals treated with PSA lived longer and had a significantly increased survival rate (FIG. 1 panel D).

Thus, PSA has a same protective effect in two distinct models of sepsis, demonstrating that PSA is able to protect from acute systemic inflammatory disease. These effects are only seen in the experiments reported in this Example when PSA is directly provided within the blood, suggesting that perhaps PSA may act through alternative mechanisms than those established within the gut. Thus, while production of PSA by B. fragilis within the intestine would not confer these benefits to the host, we have identified a natural product that can block the influx of inflammatory cytokines and prevent death during sepsis. Identifying PSA as a potential therapeutic candidate for the treatment of sepsis.

Example 4 Intravenous PSA Administration Protects an Individual from Sepsis

To mimic a clinically significant treatment situation, PSA was administered after inducing endotoxin induced sepsis. Balb/c animals were treated with high doses of LPS (500 ug) i.p. and subsequently treated i.v. with PBS, PSA or PSA was administered 30 minutes post-LPS (see FIG. 2).

Since this is an acute model, where overt inflammation occurs within one hour after induction two timepoints for PSA treatment were tested. In particular, serum was collected 1 and 4 hours post-LPS injection and cytokines TNF-α (FIG. 2 Panel A) and IL-6 (FIG. 2 Panel B) were detected by ELISA.

Each experiment consisted of at least 4 animals in each groups and was repeated twice. * p<0.05 **p<0.005 as measured by a students t test One group received i.v. administration of PSA directly after LPS injection (PSA same) while the second group received PSA thirty minutes post-LPS injection (PSA-post) (FIG. 2).

Animals treated with PSA directly following the induction of endotoxin shock had reduced levels of TNF-α and IL-6 similar to that of prophylactic treatment of PSA (compare FIG. 1 to FIG. 2 panels A and B). Moreover, these animals had a high survival rate and were protected from death (FIG. 2C). Remarkably, animals treated up to thirty minutes after induction of disease had lower serum levels of TNF-α and these animals also lived longer and had a higher survival rate (FIG. 2).

While IL-6 levels in this group of animals were similar to the control group, animals were still protected from death, suggesting that IL-6 might be dispensable for disease induction (FIG. 2 Panel B). PSA administered i.v. does not on its own induce TNF-α or IL-6 production (data not shown), suggesting that use of this molecule will not cause more damage during acute stress. Thus, these result show that PSA is able to rapidly prevent inflammation associated with sepsis and prolong survival. As most sepsis patients succumb to massive inflammation and organ damage before they are able to clear the live infection in the blood, our data support a role for PSA as part of a combinatorial therapy with antibiotics.

Example 5 PSA Protection from Endotoxin Induced Sepsis is Independent from TLR2 and IL-10 Signaling Pathways

Previous reports have demonstrated that PSA is required and sufficient to suppress intestinal inflammation [5]. Additionally, numerous reports have demonstrated that PSA's ability to protect from chronic inflammatory diseases such as IBD and MS is dependent on signaling through TLR2 and production of IL-10 from T cells.

Therefore, to determine whether PSA protection from endotoxin induced sepsis also required these pathways the following experiments were performed.

Surprisingly, TLR2−/− or IL-10−/− mice treated with PSA were still completely protected from death and had suppressed TNFα and IL-6 levels during septic shock (FIGS. 6,3).

These data suggest that while TLR2 or IL-10 signaling pathways are required for PSA to promote anti-inflammatory responses when present within the gut, however these are not the mechanisms used when PSA is in the blood.

Example 6 PSA Protection from Endotoxin Induced Sepsis is Dependent on B Cells

PSA is known to influence T cell responses during steady state development as well as during protection from disease. Therefore, experiments were performed which did show that PSA protects from sepsis through B cells.

In particular, the requirement for T and B cells during PSA mediated protection from sepsis was tested. To this end, we treated RAG^(−/−) mice with PSA and subsequently induced disease according to three sets of experiments.

In a first set of experiments, RAG^(−/−) animals were treated i.v. with either PBS or PSA 24 hours prior to receiving high dose LPS i.p. Serum was collected from animals at 1 and 4 hours, TNF-α and IL-6 were measured by ELISA (FIG. 3 Panel A) and survival monitored (FIG. 3 Panel B). Two experiments were combined. *p<0.05 **p<0.005 using a logrank and Gehan-Wilcoxon test.

In a second set of experiments, RAG^(−/−) recipients received either CD4+CD3+ (square) or total T cells (CD3+) (triangle) or CD4 depleted splenocytes (includes CD8+ T cells and CD19+ B cells) (sphere). Twenty-four hours later animals were given LPS. Serum was collected 1 and 4 hours post-LPS to measure cytokines (FIG. 3 Panel C) and survival was monitored (FIG. 3 Panel D).

In a third set of experiments sort purified CD19+ total B cells were purified from the spleen of donor animals and transferred into RAG^(−/−) recipients and inflammatory cytokines were monitored at 1 and 4 hours (FIG. 3 Panel E) as well as survival (FIG. 3 Panel F). * p<0.05 **p<0.005 by a student's t test for all ELISA data and *p<0.05 **p<0.005 using a logrank and Gehan-Wilcoxon test for survival data. ELISA data is representative from one experiment repeated twice with an n of 4 in each group. Survival data combines multiple experiments.

In outcome of the above three sets of experiments it was shown that consistent with previously published literature, RAG^(−/−) animals mount robust inflammatory responses and succumb to endotoxin induced death.

PSA no longer protected animals from sepsis in the absence of T and B cells, indicating a requirement for one of these cells types (FIG. 3 Panels A and B). Reconstitution of RAG^(−/−) animals with sort purified cell populations thus represents a nice model to identify the relevant cell type. Remarkably, transfer of CD3+ total T cells nor CD4+ sort purified T cells into RAG^(−/−) mice was unable to restore PSA mediated protection from death (FIG. 3 Panels C and D). In contrast, the transfer of CD4+ T cell depleted splenocytes restored the ability of PSA to prevent death and suppress systemic inflammation (FIG. 3 Panels C and D). Thus, PSA treatment of systemic inflammation is T cell-independent. These unexpected results compelled us to test a role for B cells, the major lymphocyte present within the spleen. Sort purified CD19+ B cells were transferred into RAG^(−/−) mice that were induced for LPS sepsis, and treated groups with either i.v. PSA or PBS. Mice reconstituted with total B cells and given PSA survived and had significantly reduced serum levels of TNFα (FIG. 3 Panels E and F). This fascinating finding is consistent with very recent reports implicating B cells is mouse models of sepsis. Most importantly, no studies have described a treatment (microbiome-based or otherwise) that requires or induces B cell responses during amelioration of sepsis.

Example 7 Marginal Zone B Cells are Required for PSA Mediated Sepsis Protection

Multiple subsets of B cells exist within the spleen including B1, follicular, and MZ B cell populations. Since PSA is able to protect from sepsis in the absence of T cells experiments were focused on B cell subset that do not require T cell help to secrete antibody. Both B1 and MZ B cells can secrete IgM in a T cell independent manner, therefore experiments were performed to determine whether either of these subsets conferred protection from sepsis by PSA. B1 cells and MZ B cells were sort purified and transferred into RAG^(−/−) animals. Animals were subsequently treated with PSA and induced for disease.

In particular in a first set of experiments, marginal zone B cells (CD19+B220+IgM^(hi)CD21^(hi)CD23) were sort purified and transferred into RAG^(−/−) recipients. Twenty-four hours later these animals were given high dose LPS and serum collected at 1 and 4 hours to assay for TNF-α (FIG. 4 Panel A) and survival was monitored (FIG. 4 Panel B).

The results show interestingly, that while B1b cells did not restore PSA mediated protection in RAG^(−/−) animals (data not shown), the transfer of a purified population of MZ B cells was able to elicit suppression of serum levels of TNF-α and protect animals from sepsis induced death (FIG. 4 Panels A and B). This does not rule out a role for B1a cells during PSA mediated protection from sepsis, however it does demonstrate that MZ B cells play an instrumental function during this process

To further validate this conclusion, experiments were performed to determine whether the function of PSA on MZ B cells could be transplanted into mice that have never been treated with PSA. WT animals were treated i.v. with two doses of PSA and splenic MZ B cells were isolated and subsequently transferred into a RAG^(−/−) recipients. LPS induced sepsis was then induced in the MZ B cell recipients without any treatment with PSA.

In particular a second set of experiments, WT C57Bl/6 animals were treated i.v. with either PBS or PSA (100 ug) every other day for a total of three days (FIG. 4 Panels C and D). MZ B cells were subsequently sort purified as in in the first set of experiments and 8×10⁵ MZ B cells were transferred into RAG^(−/−) recipients. Twenty-four hours later animals received high dose LPS (500 ug). Serum was collected at indicated time points to analyze TNF-α (FIG. 4 Panel E) and survival monitored (FIG. 4 Panel F). * p<0.05 **p<0.005 by a student's t test for all ELISA data and *p<0.05 **p<0.005 using a logrank and Gehan-Wilcoxon test for survival data.

The results show remarkably, that while animals receiving control MZ B cells had high levels of serum TNF-α and had a high mortality rate consistent with previous experiments, animals receiving PSA primed MZ B cells were completely protected from endotoxin induced sepsis (FIG. 4 Panels C and D). The protection conferred by the MZ B cell transfer was as good as treating the animals directly with PSA. These data demonstrate that PSA is able to protect from sepsis by acting through a marginal zone B cell population.

Additionally, while germfree mice possess nearly normal levels of MZ B cells within the spleen, changes in the composition of the microbiota can lead to defective MZ B cell maintenance. This suggests that specific members of the microbiota can influence MZ B cell function

Example 8 IgM Production by Marginal Zone B Cells is Required for PSA Mediated Sepsis Protection

Marginal zone B cells secrete copious amounts of polyreactive IgM. IgM recognizes conserved bacterial structures and is able to rapidly control bacterial infections and accordingly, has a protective role in CLP. Based on this, serum was isolated from RAG^(−/−) animals that received a MZ B transplant from PSA treated mice and quantitated IgM serum levels. While animals that received MZ B cells from mock treated mice have very low levels of IgM in the serum during LPS induced sepsis, mice receiving MZ B cells from PSA treated animals had high levels of circulating IgM (FIG. 7)

These data suggest that PSA is able to induce the secretion of IgM from MZ B cells and aid in protection from sepsis. Indeed, polyreactive IgM aids in clearance of endotoxin from the blood and reduces inflammation.

To test whether IgM is the mechanism by which PSA is able to protect from endotoxin induced sepsis total B cells were isolated from the spleen of animals that are unable to make secreted IgM (sIgM^(−/−)) and transferred these cells into RAG^(−/−) recipients according to procedure of Example 7. Animals were either mock treated or treated with i.v. PSA and subsequently induced for sepsis.

PBS treated animals had high serum concentrations of inflammatory cytokines and rapidly succumbed to death, while animals that were PSA treated were protected (FIG. 4 Panels E and F). However, animals that received MZ B cells from sIgM^(−/−) mice were no longer protected by administration of PSA (FIG. 4 Panels E and F). Taken together, these data demonstrate that PSA can coordinate the protection of animals from sepsis through the influence of marginal zone B cell IgM secretion. These are the first studies to identify a therapeutic inducer of IgM for sepsis treatment.

Example 10 PSA as a Therapeutic Agent for Sepsis Through Activation of B Cells

Previous studies have highlighted an important role for B cells during sepsis. μMT^(−/−) animals that lack B cells, succumb to worsened LPS induced and polymicrobial sepsis. Interestingly, mortality during sepsis in T cell deficient mice is similar to WT animals, indicating that B cells are instrumental to the survival of the host during septic shock.

Antibodies or cytokines secreted from B cells are thought to be important for conferring protection as transfer of serum from WT animals into a B cell deficient host is sufficient to enhance survival during sepsis.

Supporting a role for IgM, sIgM^(−/−) animals suffer a much higher mortality rate when compared to WT animals during polymicrobial sepsis. Taken together these findings indicate that B cell secretion of IgM is an important mechanism to protect the host from sepsis and suggest that harnessing the protective capacity of B cells during this disease could be a novel therapy.

The above results show that PSA can control the protective activity of B cells during sepsis. A possible mechanism herein provided with no intent of being limiting is that as polysaccharides from other bacteria are known to serve as BCR agonist, it is possible that PSA could directly activate an MZ B cell through ligation of surface bound IgM. Alternatively, although with is also possible that PSA acts through other innate immune receptors to activate MZ B cells directly.

Additionally, PSA does not elicit overt inflammation when administered i.v into animals (data not shown), and therefore would not exacerbate the cytokine storm known to occur during sepsis.

Septic patients often succumb to death very rapidly from organ failure in response to a overzealous immune response In view of the above, PSA is expected to be used in therapy in combination with antibiotics to prolong life and allow treatment and recovery from sepsis

Here it is demonstrated that administration of PSA to animals induced for experimental sepsis potently prevents disease. PSA rapidly suppresses numerous inflammatory cytokines, and significantly rescues animals from death in the endotoxin shock and CLP models. Applicants have previously identified that mucosally produced PSA can protect from IBD in a TLR2 and IL-10 depend manner. However, when PSA is provided into the extra-intestinal compartment, it instead influences natural antibody production from marginal zone B cells independent of TLR2 or IL-10.

The examples set forth above are provided to give those of ordinary skill in the art a complete disclosure and description of how to make and use the embodiments of the compounds compositions and methods of the disclosure, and are not intended to limit the scope of what the inventors regard as their disclosure. Modifications of the above-described modes for carrying out the disclosure that are obvious to persons of skill in the art are intended to be within the scope of the following claims. All patents and publications mentioned in the specification are indicative of the levels of skill of those skilled in the art to which the disclosure pertains. All references cited in this disclosure are incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each reference had been incorporated by reference in its entirety individually.

The entire disclosure of each document cited (including patents, patent applications, journal articles, abstracts, laboratory manuals, books, or other disclosures) in the Background, Summary, Detailed Description, and Examples is hereby incorporated herein by reference.

Further, the sequence listing submitted herewith is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

It is to be understood that the disclosures are not limited to particular compositions or biological systems, which can, of course, vary. It is also to be understood that the terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only, and is not intended to be limiting. As used in this specification and the appended claims, the singular forms “a,” “an,” and “the” include plural referents unless the content clearly dictates otherwise. The term “plurality” includes two or more referents unless the content clearly dictates otherwise. Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which the disclosure pertains.

Although any methods and materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used in the practice for testing of the specific examples of appropriate materials and methods are described herein.

A number of embodiments of the disclosure have been described. Nevertheless, it will be understood that various modifications may be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the present disclosure. Accordingly, other embodiments are within the scope of the following claims.

REFERENCES

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What is claimed is:
 1. A method to treat sepsis, severe sepsis, septic shock, multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS), or systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) in an individual, the method comprising: identifying an individual in need, wherein the individual in need is an individual having a condition selected from the group consisting of sepsis, severe sepsis, septic shock, MODS, and SIRS, and wherein the condition is caused by polymicrobial infection from the gut of the individual; systemically administering to the individual in need an effective amount of a zwitterionic polysaccharide; and systemically administering to the individual in need an effective amount of marginal zone B cells. wherein the effective amount of the zwitterionic polysaccharide induces IgM production from the marginal zone B cells, thereby treating sepsis, severe sepsis, septic shock, MODS, or SIRS in the individual.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the systemically administering is performed by intravenously administering the zwitterionic polysaccharide.
 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the systemically administering is performed by administering the zwitterionic polysaccharide in combination with an effective amount of one or more antibiotics.
 4. The method of claim 1, wherein the effective amount of zwitterionic polysaccharide is in a range from about 0.001 μg to about 1,000 μg per 0.25 kilograms of body weight.
 5. The method of claim 1 _(;) wherein the zwitterionic polysaccharide is polysaccharide A (PSA).
 6. A method to prevent sepsis, severe sepsis, septic shock, multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS), or systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) in an individual, the method comprising: identifying an individual in need, wherein the individual in need is an individual at a risk of having a condition selected from the group consisting of sepsis, severe sepsis, septic shock, and SIRS, and wherein the condition is caused by polymicrobial infection from the gut of the individual; systemically administering to the individual in need an effective amount of a zwitterionic polysaccharide; and systemically administering to the individual in need an effective amount of marginal zone B cells, wherein the effective amount of the zwitterionic polysaccharide induces IgM production from the marginal zone B cells, thereby preventing sepsis, severe sepsis, septic shock, MODS, or SIRS in the individual.
 7. The method of claim 6, wherein the systemically administering is performed by intravenously administering the zwitterionic polysaccharide.
 8. The method of claim 6, wherein the systemically administering is performed by administering the zwitterionic polysaccharide in combination with an dfective amount of one or more antibiotics.
 9. The method of claim 6, wherein the effective amount of zwitterionic polysaccharide is in a range from about 0.001 μg to about 1,000 μg per 0.25 kilograms of body weight.
 10. The method of claim 6, wherein the zwitterionic polysaccharide is polysaccharide A (PSA).
 11. The method of claim 1, wherein the effective amount of zwitterionic polysaccharide is in a range from about 25 μg to about 1000 μg per 25 gram of body weight.
 12. The method of claim 6, wherein the effective amount of zwitterionic polysaccharide is in a range from about 25 μg to about 1000 μg per 25 gram of body weight.
 13. A method to prevent sepsis, severe sepsis, septic shock, multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS), or systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) in an individual, the method comprising: systematically administering to an individual in need an effective amount of zwitterionic polysaccharide primed marginal zone B cells, thereby preventing sepsis, severe sepsis, septic shock, MODS, or SIRS in the individual.
 14. The method of claim 13, wherein the zwitterionic polysaccharide primed marginal zone B cells are capable of producing IgM.
 15. The method of claim 13, wherein the zwitterionic polysaccharide primed marginal zone B cells are obtained from a subject treated with a zwitterionic polysaccharide.
 16. The method of claim 13, wherein the individual in need is not administered with ny zwitterionic polysaccharide.
 17. A method to treat sepsis, severe sepsis, septic shock, multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS), or systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) in an individual, the method comprising: systematically administering to an individual in need an effective amount of zwitterionic polysaccharide primed marginal zone B cells, thereby treating sepsis, severe sepsis, septic shock, MODS, or SIRS in the individual.
 18. The method of claim 17, wherein the zwitterionic polysaccharide primed marginal zone B cells are capable of producing IgM.
 19. The method of claim 17, wherein the zwitterionic polysaccharide primed marginal zone B cells are obtained from a subject treated with a zwitterionic polysaccharide.
 20. The method of claim 17, wherein the individual in need is not administered with any zwitterionic polysaccharide. 